‘Cristian’ Archive

History of Mathematycs

Posted by Cristian
6 March 2010

Buenas!

Espero que el título de la entrada os de alguna idea sobre lo que me voy a dedicar estos días.

Vamos a hacer un viaje a lo largo de toda la historia de las matemáticas, pero vista muy por encima.Voy a ir por tríos de siglos,desde la antigua Grecia hasta la actualidad. Asi que vamos allá!

1º.- MATEMÁTICAS GRIEGAS (desde el s.VI a.C hasta s.VI d.C)

  1. Siglo VI a.C

—- Tales de Mileto (geometría) —-

Tales de Mileto fue el iniciador de la indagación racional sobre el universo. Se le considera el primer filósofo de la historia, y el fundador de la escuela jonia de filosofía, según el testimonio de Aristóteles. Fue el primero y más famoso de los Siete Sabios de Grecia (el sabio astrónomo) y tuvo como discípulo y protegido a Pitágoras,del que hablaré luego. Es aparte uno de los más grandes astrónomos y matemáticos de su época. Sus estudios abarcaron profundamente el área de la Geometría, Algebra Lineal y Geometría.

Ahora que está introducida su vida (gracias a wikipedia,claro) voy a las mates.

Tales,en geometría, y en base a los conocimientos adquiridos en Egipto, elaboró un conjunto de teoremas generales y de razonamientos deductivos a partir de estos. Todo ello fue recopilado posteriormente por Euclides en su obra Elementos, pero se debe a Tales el mérito de haber introducido en Grecia el interés por los estudios geométricos.

Ninguno de sus escritos ha llegado hasta nuestros días; a pesar de ello son muy numerosas las aportaciones que a lo largo de la historia, desde Herodoto, Jenófanes o Aristóteles, se le han atribuido.

La contribución más importante, ya está en una entrada que hice anteriormente a él, asi que no voy a hablar de él.

—- Pitágoras (aritmética) —-

Pitágoras de Samos fue un filósofo y matemático griego, famoso sobre todo por el Teorema de Pitágoras que en realidad pertenece a la escuela pitagórica y no sólo al mismo Pitágoras. Afirmaba que todo es matemáticas, y estudió y clasificó los números.

Los pitagóricos atribuían todos sus descubrimientos a Pitágoras por lo que es difícil determinar con exactitud cuales resultados son obra del maestro y cuales de los discípulos.

Entre los descubrimientos que se atribuyen a la escuela de Pitágoras están:

  • Una prueba del teorema de Pitágoras. Si bien los pitagóricos no descubrieron este teorema (ya era conocido y aplicado en Babilonia y la India desde hacía un tiempo considerable), sí fueron los primeros en encontrar una demostración formal del teorema. También demostraron el converso del teorema (si los lados de un triángulo satisfacen la ecuación, entonces el triángulo es recto).
  • Números amigos Un par de números son amigables si cada uno es igual a la suma de los divisores propios del otro. Por ejemplo los números amigables 220 y 284.
  • Números perfectos. Estudiaron los números perfectos, es decir aquellos números que son iguales a la suma de sus divisores propios (por ejemplo 6=1+2+3). Encontraron una fórmula para obtener ciertos números perfectos pares.
  • Ternas pitagóricas. Una terna pitagórica es una terna de números enteros (a, b, c) tales que a² + b² = c². Aunque los babilonios ya sabían cómo generar tales ternas en ciertos casos, los pitagóricos extendieron el estudio del tema encontrando resultados como cualquier entero impar es miembro de una terna pitagórica primitiva.
  • Sólidos regulares. Los pitagóricos descubrieron el dodecaedro y demostraron que sólo existen 5 poliedros regulares.
  • Números irracionales. El descubrimiento de que la diagonal de un cuadrado de lado 1 no puede expresarse como un cociente de números enteros marca el descubrimiento de los números irracionales.
  • Medias. Los pitagóricos estudiaron la relación entre las medias aritmética, geométrica y armónica de dos números y obtuvieron la relación .

2. Siglo V (a.C)

Ésta parte de la historia se caracteriza por existir dos grupos diferentes. Tenemos a los Pitagóricos, que son seguidores o alumnos de la escuela de Pitágoras, y los Sofistas. Había matemáticos de ambos grupos.

  • PITAGÓRICOS

—-Filolao de Grotona—-

Como otros muchos pensadores de la época, se dedicaba a la astronomía y a la cosmología; había inventado un extraño sistema del universo. !La Tierra además de girar no era el centro! !Y lo había imaginado 2000 años antes que Copérnico y Galileo.

Filolao situó un fuego en el centro del universo, un fuego alrededor del que la Tierra, el Sol y los otros planetas giraban.

—- Hispaso de Metaponto —-

Se cree que fue quien probó la existencia de los números irracionales Hipaso de Metaponto habría roto la regla de silencio de los pitagóricos revelando en el mundo la existencia de estos nuevos números. Eso habría hecho que éstos lo expulsaran de la escuela y erigieran una tumba con su nombre, mostrando así que para ellos, él estaba muerto.

Un número irracional es cualquier número real que no es racional, es decir, es un número que no puede ser expresado como una fracción (m/Nn , donde m y n son enteros, con n diferente de cero y donde esta fracción es irreducible.

—- Hipócrates de Quíos —-

Hipócrates fue,después de Aristóteles, uno de los más eminentes geómetras que existieron, pero para lo demás era tonto y estúpido. Empezó su vida de comerciante marítimo. En un viaje por mar unos recaudadores de impuestos le requisaron todo el dinero. Hipócrates, arruinado,no encontró nada mejor que hacer: se hizo matemático!. !Si todos los arruinados del mundo hiciesen lo mismo!

Hipócrates fue el inventor del razonamiento por reducción al absurdo. Es una de las armas de temibles de la Lógica. Permite establecer la verdad de una proposición demostrando que la proposición contrario conduce a un absurdo del tipo <<un número que es la vez par e impar>>,<<dos paralelas se cortan>>, <<un triángulo isósceles tiene todos sus ángulos diferentes>>.

Si Tales escrutaba el cielo, Hipócrates perseguía las fases de la luna, que se llaman en matemáticas las lúnulas.Estableció la cuadratura de las lúnulas, que fue el primer cálculo del área de una figura curva.

Fue expulsado de la escuela pitagórica por haber cobrado por enseñar geometría.

—- Demócrito, el atomista. —-

Se sabe que escribió varios tratados de Geometría y de Astronomía, pero desgraciadamente todos perdidos. Se cree que escribió sobre Teoría de los Números. Encontró la fórmula B*h/3 que expresa el volumen de una pirámide. Además demostró que esta fórmula se la puede aplicar para calcular el volumen de un cono.

Se le atribuyen también los siguientes dos teoremas:

- “El volumen de un cono es igual a un tercio del volumen de un cilindro de igual base y altura”

- “El volumen de una pirámide es un tercio del volumen del prisma de igual base y altura”

Un problema muy diferente a todo lo visto hasta ahora preocupó también en Grecia: el de la naturaleza de la luz. Demócrito sustenta la teoría de la emisión según la cual la visión es causada por la proyección de partículas que provienen de los objetos mismos. No es esto más que el principio de la larga fila de teorías que se encuentran de la luz en la historia de las ciencias.

—- Parménides y Zenón (eleatas) —-

Aquiles, llamado “el de los pies ligeros” , decide salir a competir en una carrera contra una tortuga. Ya que corre mucho más rápido que ella, y seguro de sus posibilidades, le da una gran ventaja inicial. Al darse la salida, Aquiles recorre en poco tiempo la distancia que los separaba inicialmente, pero al llegar allí descubre que la tortuga ya no está, sino que ha avanzado, más lentamente, un pequeño trecho. Sin desanimarse, sigue corriendo, pero al llegar de nuevo donde estaba la tortuga, ésta ha avanzado un poco más. De este modo, Aquiles no ganará la carrera, ya que la tortuga estará siempre por delante de él.

Esta paradoja clásica afirma que un corredor no puede llegar a la meta porque, para lograrlo, debe recorrer una distancia; pero no puede recorrer esa distancia sin primero recorrer la mitad de ella, y así hasta el infinito. Que pena que Zenon no conociese el cálculo infinitesimal.

Porque existe un número infinito de bisecciones en una distancia espacial, uno no puede recorrer una distancia en tiempo finito, a menos que acorte la distancia o aumente la velocidad. Este argumento, como muchos otros de Zenón, se proponía demostrar la imposibilidad lógica del movimiento.

  • SOFISTAS

—- Hipias de Elis (geómetra) —-

Hipias fue uno de los cuatro grandes sofistas, junto a Protágoras, Gorgias y Pródico.Ha pasado a la historia como un personaje interesado por todos los ámbitos del conocimiento: poesía, gramática, arqueología, arquitectura, astronomía, cálculo, filología, música, matemática, retórica, rítmica, armonía, historia, literatura, mitología, etc.

,Hay tres problemas principales que preocuparon a los matemáticos griegos y que no pudieron resolver geométricamente, sólo con la ayuda de una regla y un compás. Se trata de la duplicación del cubo, de la trisección de un ángulo (ambos problemas están relacionados con la obtención de la raíz cúbica de un número entero con métodos geométricos) y la cuadratura del círculo, relacionado con la trascendencia del número pi (pi no puede ser obtenido algebraicamente con ningún polinomio). Pues bien, Hipias resolvió este problema con una curva anexa que recibe el nombre de “curva de Hipias”, que es una cuadratiz que permite realizar la trisección del triángulo.

Y hasta aquí es todo. Ya sé que dije que iba a hacer tríos de siglos, pero es que el siguiente es todavía más grande y no quería aburrir mucho.

Espero que al menos os haya gustado un poco.

Que tengáis buen dia!

Poems

Posted by Cristian
1 March 2010

Translation in progress, come back soon!

Short moral story

Posted by Cristian
24 February 2010

Translation in progress! Come back soon.

More chemistry in our daily life

Posted by Cristian
20 February 2010

Translation in progress. Come back soon!

Thales, the shadow-man

Posted by Cristian
16 February 2010

Translation in progress, come back soon!

How to build a time machine

Posted by Cristian
12 February 2010

Translation in progress, come back soon!

Listen to music through the Internet

Posted by Cristian
4 February 2010

Translation in progress!

Literature recommendations

Posted by Cristian
1 February 2010

Greetings, readers!

The exams have kept me away from anything that distracted me, and as the computer is an abundant source of distraction, I practically had to hide it. I hope my colleagues haven’t upset you too much with technology articles.

Today I’m going to talk about my private library, I mean, the books I enjoyed the most.

- “The lost origin” Matilde Asensi

The truth is that I love almost all the books this woman has written. She has an incredible ease to get you into the story and its characters make plot twists in a unique way.

This particular book was the first I read from this writer, and the one I liked most. It’s about how three friends try to cure the illness of the brother of one of them, who has gone crazy. Researching, they found that the brother discovered the origin of the first language, but went mad trying to decipher it. So they embark on an adventure through an uncharted territory on Earth. Places that not even the GPS are able to decode because of the height of the trees, the thickness of nature, where mankind has not yet arrived, or maybe yes…

- “Finis Mundi” Laura Gallego

Michel, a monk of Cluny, is proposed a virtually impossible mission and decides to accept, knowing that it involves risks, but ignoring what will happen him during his adventure all over the world. According to the revelations of a hermit the end of the world is approaching and the only way to stop the destruction of mankind is to invoke the spirit of Time. To achieve this, he has to find the three “axis” (past, present and future). He search them in France, Spain and England, to end up at the end of the world…

- “Sans dessus dessous” Jules Verne

A book that I certainly recommend to young people. It’s a very short science-fiction book, with no aliens nor travel to the center of the Earth or anything similar. Let me explain.

This is the period in which nothing is known of the North Pole. Some failed attempts to get close, but all failed with horrific results. Because nobody is able to reach the North Pole, an odd character send all the world civilizations an invitation to auction the land at the North Pole. The countries send their representatives in order to seize the land. Finally the struggle is won by an unknown dynamite company. What’s their intent? Change the axis tilt of the Earth, so that the sun’s rays impinge on the part of the pole that they can’t reach, to colonize it, and to exploit the natural resources (oil, coal…) that they think it has.

When the world learns about this, they mustn’t say what’s happening. The explosion needed to modify the earth’s axis would raise the sea level, submerging parts of the world, it would change the height of some places…

- “Stories to read in a fullmoon night”

I don’t consider myself a person who likes the tales of terror. I think it’s because it’s so hard to instill fear through the word, that it is accessible to very few.

This book is a collection of fantastic, mystery and terror tales of the greatest writers like Bécquer, Lovecraft, Edgar Allan Poe, Charles Dickens…

A book I recommend for those who don’t know these authors’ terror tales. It’s worth reading this book.

- “The great Gastby” F. Scott Fitzgerlad

It’s inevitable to talk about books and not to talk about one of the authors of the so-called lost generation.

Jay Gatsby is a millionaire with a dark past, often linked with illegal sale of alcohol or being a murderer for hire. He has no friends. However, he makes great parties where strangers are invited. He invites, he gives the house, and nothing more, he doesn’t even assist to them. People go to those parties, but don’t really know who he is.

Gatsby is a lonely man that wills to return to the past. A past to revive the love of his life, Daisy. Unfortunately, she got married to a famous millionaire and they have a daughter. But the discomfort with her husband and Gatsby’s insatiable desire to be back with her, makes that the past can be back for a while.

But from that point, the tragedy of events is inevitable and the present returns to its place. What happens? I think you’ll have to read it for yourselves.

- “The tyrant” Valerio Massimo Manfredi

I decided to include this Manfredi’s book (excuse my familiarity, Mr. Manfredi) because it’s the latest I have read. Although it might have included some more ones. I discovered this writer by chance, like the little things of life, and now I can’ get him out of my hands (his books, of course).

Sicily, V century B.C. Dionysus, the boldest warrior of Syracuse, had a single passion: to free the island from the Carthaginians and strengthening the Greek control over it.

Thus began the wonderful adventure of Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, feared by those opposed to his policies. He managed to turn his city into the most prosperous of the Greek empire and the magnificent monuments that he built still today admired. However, he must pay a high price, one that not all were willing to pay. View his friends, his family, his soldiers dying. How he was only trying to liberate the Syracusans from Carthage invasion and how the people was smearing his name. Because when all power rests with one person…

I think for today I fulfilled my part. So I leave you until my next contribution, and I hope that you read at least one of the books I mentioned about.

Thank you and have a good day!

Chemistry in our daily life

Posted by Cristian
15 January 2010

I know this has little to do with the general blog thematic, but it’s not bad to know a little bit more about things we daily see. I remember that a teacher said me: If you go to a TV shop, for example, you know which television is better than the other. But, do you know how do they work?

So what I want to talk you about is that part of the world in which we all participate without knowing anything about it. Here we go!

Ammonia (NH3)

We all know what’s ammonia. It’s that gas that smells horribly and that when it enters into our nose, we are smelling it a lot of time.

Its name is not of normal nomenclature (Stock), what would be Nitrogen Hydride (III), but it comes from the adorers of egipcian god Amon, used by them to improve breathing and concentration.

Ammonia dissolves very well in water (so isn’t oil, which is immiscible with it). This high solubility makes its tipic smell, because ammonia dissolves easily in the watery mucus that coats the olfactory epithelium of our nose. Water would probably smell as hot as ammonia if our olfactory sensors weren’t continuously coated by water. It means, if it was coated by ammonia instead of water, water would smell hot.

The ammonia, apart from its industrial production, can be found in cattle dung, in Brie or Camembert cheeses and in old urine.

It’s used as vegetal fertilizer, it’s added to cigarettes to make nicotine more harmful, it’s thrown by exhaust pipes in cars, etc.

Ethanol (C2H6O)

Probably you don’t know it with this name, but it’s what we usually call alcohol.

Fermentation was discovered probably by accident, when honey, cereals or fruits juice were found converted in mead, beer and wine, or concentrated by the famous distillation.

Physiologically, alcohol acts as a depressive and as a general anaesthetic; in last states of intoxically, the effects are similar as a frontal lobotamy. Alcohol seems like a stimulant for who drinks it, but actually it acts numbing cerebral cortex parts.

Other physiological effects that comes with alcohol ingest includes the interference in antidiuretic hormones production, which leads us at a secretation excess and deshidratation sensation. It also dilates blood vessels, increasing blood flow, what leads us to a pink skin tone and a hot sensation.

Scottish Whisky (from the gaelic uisce beatha, what means life water) takes out the ethanol from partially germinated barley before being fermented.

Vodka (in Russian, water) is almost only water with ethanol, so it’s the most pure compound I talk about.

Saccharin (C7H5O3NS)

For those who don’t know anything about chemistry, C is carbon, H is hydrogen, O is oxygen, N is nitrogen and S is sulfur.

Saccharine was discovered in 1879 by a chemist who forgot to wash his hands after staying in the laboratory. With the discovery came the opportunity of being a sweet-addict without caring about obesity, because saccharine is not metabolized by our body and is excreted as is (everything what enters, quits, =P).

It’s 300 times sweeter than sugar and has a very low caloric value. It’s such sweet flavour is mainly due to the link between carbon and three hydrogen atoms.

By the way, saccharine doesn’t attract bees or butterflies, like sugar. It’s suspected as a posible inductor to bladder cancer, but only for the appearing of this disease in rats.

So, you already know, ask for saccharine.

Quinine (C20H24O2N2)

Quinine is a white and cristallyne solid, which is extracted   from Cinchona pubescens’ cortex, a tree from South America.

Its bitter taste is more familiar in tonic form, used for example in gin tonic or a French kind of wine, enhancing its flavour.

Its serious application is for fighting malary. The molecule joins the causing parasite’s ADN and which is transmited by female mosquite bite. Quinine voids the replication of its ADN, and for this reason, it dies.

It has analgesic application too! In higher dosis than gin tonic it can produce abortion, because it makes uterus contractions.

But basically, we all know it for the tonic we drink when our stomach hurts us or because we have eaten a lot, because it helps stomach with the food descomposition.

Caffeine (C8H10O2N4)

Caffeine is the main ingredient of coffee and tea, which stimulates cerebral cortex.

Tipically, a cup of coffee or tea contains a tenth part of caffeine. Coffee is obtained from toasting the seeds of Coffea arabica trees; and tea from fermented leaves of Camellia thea. Caffeine is also in soda plant seeds. The extracts from this plant are used for flavoring soda drinks, instead of cocaine, what is what they contained originally (answering with this the myth about that Coke contained cocaine much time ago).

Salicylic acid (C7H6O3) and Aspirins (C9H8O4)

Some of the softest and non-addicting analgesics that are sold, are of the kind of aspirins. They’re derivated from acetylsalicylic acid. The acid is situated in the cortex of the willow (and some other plants from the group of the Salicaceae) combined with a glucose molecule. The ones from the cortex were used to ease the suffering in traditional medicinal preparations. The extracts from the leaves and cortex from various trees and bushes, like tea trees, have similar medical properties, so they have similar substances.

Its discoverer was the german Felix Hoffman, who worked in a medication for his father, who suffered rheumatoid arthritis.

Its action its a bit hard to explain. Acid interferes in the synthesis of determinated compounds, inhibiting the action of an enzyme that participate in the modification of signals transmitted by synapses (connection between neurons) particularly pain signals. These compounds also intervene in blood vessels dilatation, whose effect is migraines.

I hope I haven’t bored you so much, and don’t worry, I’m sure that the next post in this blog will be about computers!! xD

See you, readers!

Scottish Whisky (from the gaelic uisce beatha, what means life water) takes out the ethanol from partially germinated barley before being fermented.

Vodka (in Russian, water) is almost only water with ethanol, so it’s the most pure compound I talk about.

Logic puzzles

Posted by Cristian
8 January 2010

Well, I don’t addict this computer things, so I’m going to contribute with my part. And, how the title says, today I’m telling you some riddles:

The berber will

A berber from the desert has three sons with different ages, and some camels. But, at his time, he passes away and leaves in his will an enigmatic statement. For distributing his 17 camels between his three sons, he puts two conditions:

  • The first is the way the camels have to be distributed. The older son has to receive the half part of the total, the middle son must receive the third part and, the younger son, the ninth part.

Apparently, this is not a problem, because 17/2 = 8.5 camels, so if we kill a camel and divide it in halves, we could distribute correctly, but…

  • The second condition says that they can’t kill, give, or do anything with the camels, so at the end of the distribution the total of camels has to be 17.

The sons, unable to solve this hard puzzle, decide to visit the town’s wise, and they ask him the solution.

How can we solve this problem?

The café

There’s a new café in town, and three friends arrange to go there and have a coffee, to see how good is it. They ask for 3 cups of coffee, and the waiter show them the bill. They have to pay 15 cents (The café was new, so there was low costs). When the waiter is going to put the money in the cash desk, the café’s owner tells him to pay back 5 cents to the customers, since they have been the first customers of the café. The waiter thought that it would be impossible to distribute 5 cents between three people, so he kept 2 cents and gave 3 cents to the friends. When the waiter gave them the money they kept 1 cent each one, and they go to their respective jobs, very happy with the services and the decoration of the café. But…

If they get back a cent, it’s like if they had paid 4 cents for each cup of coffee (remember that initially they worthed 5 cents, but each friend got back a cent). If we do a quick operation:

4 cent x 3 cups of coffee = 12 cents

12 cents + 2 cents (from the waiter) = 14 cents

¿Where’s the missing cent?

The mythical Einstein’s riddle

In a street there are five houses, painted five different colours. In each house lives a person of different nationality. These five homeowners each drink a different kind of beverage, smoke different brand of cigar and keep a different pet.

We have the following hints:

  • The Brit lives in a red house.
  • The Swede keeps dogs as pets.
  • The Dane drinks tea.
  • The Green house is next to, and on the left of the White house.
  • The owner of the Green house drinks coffee.
  • The person who smokes Pall Mall rears birds.
  • The owner of the Yellow house smokes Dunhill.
  • The man living in the centre house drinks milk.
  • The Norwegian lives in the first house.
  • The man who smokes Blends lives next to the one who keeps cats.
  • The man who keeps horses lives next to the man who smokes Dunhill.
  • The man who smokes Blue Master drinks beer.
  • The German smokes Prince.
  • The Norwegian lives next to the blue house.
  • The man who smokes Blends has a neighbour who drinks water.

¿Who’s the goldfish owner?

Sum… the letters?

Each letter has a numeric value (from 0 to 9). You have to guess them.

The words are in Spanish. It doesn’t really matter, but its translation is “six of january = kings“. In January 6th, in Spain it’s the Magi Kings‘ day.

The 3 bulbs

We have in front of us a two floor building. In the bottom floor, we have three switches: (A ; B ; C) and stairs that lead us to the top floor, in which there are three bulbs (1 ; 2 ; 3).

You, dear reader, as a good electrician, have to know which switch sets on which light bulb in an exact way and without theories. The difficulty is that you can only climb the stairs one time.

Notice that there is no cheating, no windows, there is no possibility of seeing the bulbs nor the light without climbing upstairs.

Example: I switch on A switch. When I go up in the top floor, I see that second lightbulb is open, so I can say that switch A lights bulb 2, but I can’t say what switch lights bulb 1, for example. So this is the reasoning to follow.

Good luck and see you the next day!